Who triggered the war?
This is a long story to tell, for the planner of the war hid himself and the aggressor meticulously deleted the related descriptions from his archives since December 1941 when eastern theater of the Second World War (the Pacific war) began. The Pacific war was fought mainly between Japan and US who had never thought of China as an ally before. The latent fact was that China allied with Hitler-Germany when Sino-Japanese War (second) began in August 1937, even if people at present cannot imagine.
Chinese called their land as Zhonghua.
How Zhonghua means? Zhong means "center" and Hua means "flower" so that Chinese live in the flowery center of the world. They called themselves as Huaren, flowery men. An Englishman gave the name "Middle Kingdom" for Zhonghua. However, Zhonghua is more aggressive than a simple Kingdom and motivates Chinese to conquer the rest of the world to assimilate barbarians with Chinese civilization or to destroy them all.
US as a new comer to the Far East had never experienced Chinese system to handle foreign affairs. In old days a peripheral state must accept Chinese era name and pledge homage to Chinese emperor and then, it must pay tributes that usually include castrated men and maids for harem use.
In 1929 suddenly collapsed NY stock market. The great depression began and US citizens from President downward could not afford to care about confusion in the Far East. Their only hope was that strong Japan should not bully weak China.
However, Americans living in China had seen another side of China. Her population was enormous and an unheard-of military faction easily mobilized more than 100 thousand soldiers at once. Chinese soldiers murdered foreigners and looted private assets in 1900, 1913, and 1927 and again in 1931. Japanese subdued all. They have never seen US soldiers on the Chinese ground and felt unhappy to see Japanese soldiers effective in public peace. However, they could not help but agree that cruelty and aggression were Chinese norm.
Nationalists Party
The father of Chinese Revolution, Sun Wen(Sun Yatsen)(1) who was also a chairman of Nationalists Party died in 1925. He never appointed his successor without heir though a few illegitimate sons cried out for the right. As a result Jiang Jieshi (Chian Kaishek)(2) was assumed as a leader of the party because Sun and Jiang married commonly with the privileged Songs' sisters. Moreover, Jiang founded Huangbu military school and took care of the cadet well.
Nationalists Party was not grown to be democratic but allowed any tyranny elements with communism prevalent in its organization since the beginning. Both Mao Zedong(3) and Zhou Enlai(3), prominent communism leaders, already occupied conspicuous positions at Huangbu. Nationalists Party's program was mixed up between racism and communism. It had mentioned neither human rights nor recognition of private assets. Rather than by democracy in their insistence China should be ruled by a dictator of virtue and then, could be a Zhonghua Empire with peripheral races submitted.
At the first stage of Chinese Revolution any political leaders cried out "China should be united by Han race with Qing (Tartar) destroyed."
In 1927 Jiang Jieshi tried to invade North China where military factions were rampant and was almost successful despite negotiated settlements with military factions. This was a halfway success with military factions surviving and Communists Party establishing a few of "liberated" territory.
Manchuria Incident; Coup d'etat by pan-Asianists
Japan's main concern was Russia since 18th century. However, Russia was a great power encompassing Asia and Europe. Since 16th century onward China was nothing to Japan. Shoguns of 17th century had never cared with China whose population was smaller and whose producing power was far smaller than Japan. Japanese took nouvell riches directly from Europeans, first Portuguese, second Dutch. Already in late 16th century Japan was the largest rifle manufacturing country in the world.
While commodore Perry (5) of US navy came to Japan for commerce in 1853 all samurais (ruling class) except few suddenly made out that their capability to defend the nation was defective and all things Japanese were obsolete. During Shogunate era they were entitled exclusively to arm themselves and to rule their feudal area under the obligation of keeping the nation safe.
After Perry visiting Japan they decided to overthrow the existing system and bring in any system of Western Europe even though their privilege would be lost. Suddenly, adopted Japan all of the enlightenment policy such as freedom of speech, employment, commerce and so on, protection of private assets, legal system, constitutional monarchy, and modern military system.
This was Meiji Revolution. However, in the bottom of hearts of samurais an old way of thinking lingered. Some of them still worshipped Buddhism, Confucianism and Shintoism, all of which were from Asia, either from China, India or Japan herself. These reactionaries were called pan- Asianists. The motto was "Asia is one."
After Sino-Japanese war (first), Russo-Japanese war and the First World War in succession Japan was emerged as one of three naval powers recognizable at that time. Japanese naval officers were satisfied with the result of wars and diplomatic solutions. But, army officers were not. Except for twenty years between 1905~1925, Japan's army was inferior to either Russia or USSR. Russians stationed more than forty divisions in the Far East constantly. Japan had only one in Manchuria and two in Korea.
However, it was impossible for Japan as constitutional monarchy to ignore the power of the Diet, parliament system. Every army officers' request to increase number of divisions was rejected by political parties in favor of sound budget. In this course of disputes army officers imbued with pan-Asianism crossed their mind that if they acquired the manpower in China Japan might cope with USSR by increased Chinese soldiers and satisfy Chinese injured mind against Russians.
In 1931 Ishihara(6), operation staff of Kanto-army that stationed in Manchuria and one of pan-Asianists planned to occupy all Manchuria including Rehe (Jehol) province all at once. Kanto-army had only one division of 20 thousand strong in two-year shift system. General Staff in Tokyo had never been informed of. Most of pan-Asianists in Imperial Army had experienced to station in China or Manchuria. They had sympathy with miserable life standard of China and thought that this was caused by European invasion to China. They were dotted into many posts. But, majority of army officers thought that taking USSR into consideration Japan had no way other than to act with US and Britain in concert.
To begin with the coup, Ishihara set up a camouflage as blowing up trains of Manchuria Railway Company that was owned by Japanese. His aim was to make the railway incident look like a plotted sabotage by Zhang Xueliang(7) who had Han race origin and ruled Manchuria.
His army was 250 thousand strong. However, its equipment was poor and its formation was wrong.
Japanese living in Japan proper were convulsed by the fear of an instant defeat because of inferiority in number when the fight was begun between Kanto-army and Zhang's army. Naturally, they believed that Zhan attacked first and tried to expel Japanese there and confiscate Japanese assets as reported by newspapers. Moreover, they had never imagined Manchuria was part of China. Rather, Manchuria was the land of Tartar because natural border separating China and Tartar's land should be the Great Wall.
Kanto-army overwhelmed Zhan's army all at once as predicted by Ishihara.
However, Emperor Showa and the premier did not agree with the coup. On the contrary, the Diet members were all for the coup and support Kanto-army enthusiastically. Hidehara(9), minister of foreign affairs was condemned as doing weak diplomacy. He asked the League of Nations not to interfere by the promise for this incident not to expand beyond eastern three provinces. But, shortly after this promise was given Ishihara ordered Kanto-army to cross the border of Reho with air raids on the capital city. All diplomatic efforts broke down.
Ishihara helped by Dohihara(10), another Pan-Asianist, announced that Manchu-kok was to be established with Pu Yi(11), last emperor of Qing dynasty as a puppet head. Given this existing facts all politicians gave in while even pro-US or pro-Britain and France military personnel changed their mind and rethought how to defend the greater Japanese Empire.
Germano-Chinese Connection
Jiang Jieshi had not enough power to lead Nationalists party in early 1930s. He, as a nationalist was very keen to unify faction-ridden China into a materially and spiritually prosperous country. Manchuria was important to him because newly established China needed a crown jewel acquired by sword of long oppressed Han race.
When Kanto-army overthrew Zhang Xueliang's rule he felt uneasy with the defeat of Han race on the one hand but happy to know Zhang's faction irrecoverably weakened on the other. He did not help Zhang's army but intervened the fight eventually happened between 18th army and Japanese marines in Shanghai. But shortly thereafter, he ordered withdrawal from Shanghai concession and agreed to set up demilitarized zone. This settlement was called Shanghai armistice. In 1933 two years after Manchuria Incident he also agreed to withdraw Nationalists Party lead army to the south of the Great Wall. This was called Tangu armistice, which was welcome to UK and France. He knew Chinese military stenghth was not enough to challenge Japanese.
However, he did not give up the sovereignty of Manchuria. Whenever Japanese rule deteriorated he would determine to bring it back as soon as possible. Japanese were a tiny drop on large Manchurian pond compared with vast Chinese population there.
The first thing he should do was to strengthen military power. His idea was to invite military advisors from Weimar Republic of Germany. Since the time of Qing dynasty Chinese army had been equipped with German weapons. Chinese were very firm believers in military supremacy of Germany.
However, at first Germans of Weimar Republic refused to undertake it due to French and British suspicion toward German expansionism. Instead, they offered retired military personnel to give guidance to Chinese army officers with well-paid salary. In 1927, some retired Germans were dispatched to Nanjing. They were no good and simply drunken men without ability in modern warfare. Then, there was a big change in Germany that Hitler's ascendancy to power was inevitable.
Seekt(12), the shadow chief of General Staff of Reichswehr and the Great War hero was a sensible strategist. His strategy was to ally with USSR for preparation against combined attack from Britain and France. He was not a communist, but a materialist as usual for Germans. Hitler's foreign policy was called "Lebens Raum"; Expansion to the east. This policy was against Seekt's in total.
He, desperate in politics on one hand took Jiang's offer, earnest in diplomacy on the other. His aim was to take in China as an ally because when quarreling with USSR she would be an invaluable asset. He sexagenarian executed ocean-going travel to China twice. On the first visit he fired all of the existing military advisors and brought in first line staff officers.
Seekt line
In early 1932, he advised Jiang to build more than 20 thousand pillboxes in the area surrounding Shanghai concession where as demilitarized zone any kind of military establishments were prohibited by Shanghai armistice.
Oddly enough Japanese did not protest. For the sake of bureaucracy Japanese divided China into two parts by Yangtze River. Imperial Navy was for South China in charge and the Army for North. The Navy stationed marines three thousand strong in Shanghai concession.
They were alerted with increasing number of pillboxes near the headquarters of marines. Army refused even to say something through diplomatic channel. All depended on Ishihara who was a prime offender of Manchuria incident. He insisted on the pan-Asianism so that Japan should make friendly relationship with China.
His way of thinking itself was wrong because Jiang was upset with Manchuria Incident and was preparing for the war with Japan. Ishihara himself was problematic. However, probably by a grant of honors he was promoted to chief of operation department of General Staff. This post was virtually No1 in Imperial Army at that time. Because the chief of General Staff was a prince active in Russo-Japanese War but was kept at a respectful distance and the quartermaster general was sick and unable to walk.
Ishihara underestimated Chinese, for in his thought they all were sunk into abyss of ignorance without energy for recover and by babying their leaders they were willing to follow anything Japanese.
In due course Chinese successfully completed the defense line surrounding Shanghai. Seekt also gave the idea to Jiang on how to win the coming war with Japan. According to Seekt defensive side always wins and infantry cannot overpass well-organized defense system. If Jiang successfully provoked Japanese they should bring in their infantry troops into the Chinese defense line. Caught by Chinese machineguns, dead bodies would pile up in front of trench.
Later this defense system was called Seekt line.
Hirota, a careerist
Duke Saionji (13), liberalist and a friend of Clemenceau, French Tiger during the Great War and a guardian angel for Captain Dreyfus, was a cabinetmaker entrusted by Emperor Meiji, the Great (14) since 1920s. He established the Diet-cabinet precedent that allowed for a leader of majority party to be appointed prime minister. He kept this precedent until 1932 when Inukai, prime minister was assassinated by extreme rightists. Then, he chose Saito, naval minister as Inukai's successor.
Facing with emergency he tried to balance between army and navy because army attracted nation's support by Manchuria Incident. That duke Saionji, standard-bearer of democracy stumbled over the assassination case gave the public ominous impression to go backward.
Diplomats have tendency to support their country in charge. Apostles of Asian civilization, most of who repetitively stationed in China became pan-Asianists. The key person of those was Hirota(15), a member of Black Ocean society (pan-Asianists society). He went abroad a lot to almost every great country. However, he was received well from any hosts and left nothing in favor of national interests. Even being in Japan he was loved and ignored by everyone, but earned the reputation for speedy career- up.
Sporadically appointed prime minister, minister of foreign affairs and advisor for something, he was a prominent figure in Japanese diplomacy until 1939.
His belief was that his personality and his office automatically enthralled Chinese. He met Jiang Jieshi a few times in Japan as well as in China. He failed to impress Jiang but felt contempt toward his poor demeanor.
As if trying confidence game he proposed reconciliation program to Jiang including co-operation in economy and anti-communism policy. Jiang closed his ears because he faced another threat from another Japanese pan-Asianist.
Dohihara, chief of special organization of Kanto-army tried to employ Song Zheyuan(16), commander of 29th army as his henchman.
What is 29th army?
It was the oldest military faction in China billeting soldiers and followers around the old capital Beiping. This faction was raised at the time of Taiping rebellion in 1853, and then called North-Ocean army. Its commander Yuan Shikai was the first president of Republic China. Japanese gave huge credit to North-Ocean army or Republic China, though any due money had never been repaid. After the turmoil of Chinese Revolution North-Ocean army renamed to 29th army and its command went to Song.
Dohihara as a pan-Asianist believed that Japan is obliged or privileged to have China obeyed to her cause to resist against Western invasion to Asia. His private mission was to change North China into the zone of Japanese influence. Happily, he built up tight connections with many generals of 29th army due to long relationship between Japan and North-Ocean army.
The position of Song was complicated. Militarily, it was impossible for 29th army to fight against either Nationalists Party or Japan. Therefore, he played double.
Naturally, Jiang could not allow any erosion of North China that destroyed the integrity of gods given Chinese land. Jiang tried to merge 29th army with Nationalists army (later, renamed to central army). Song half-heartedly approved of this plan on the condition that his subordinates said, "Yes."
In these circumstances Hirota's diplomatic efforts had not to be exuberant. And, it was wrong for Japanese to entrust Chinese task to Sinologists or China school men.
Falkenhausen
Seekt paid the second visit to China in April 1934. This time he accompanied Falkenhausen(17) who was master of Dresden infantry school. During the Great War Falkenhausen worked for Turkish army, eventually decorated with Iron cross first class. He stayed in Nanjing for one year to introduce conscripted military service, to transform Chinese divisional formation of almost middle age into modern and to educate trench warfare.
He asked Shacht, secretary of Finance to conclude the secret treaty called Hapro (Handelsgesellschaft fuer industrielle Produkte). As prescribed in, Germans built a Mercedes truck plant in Hubei province, set mines in Yantze River and provided staff officers for the central army.
While he returned to Germany in 1935 Falkenhausen remained in Nanjing as chief of German military advisor group.
Jiang was marveled to watch his central army growing up but his leadership in Nationalists Party was not ever stable. Its controlled area was less than 40% of today's China.
His central army already reached 2 million in 1935 so that China was armed with the largest army in the world. At that time, Japan had only 17 divisions, 250 thousand strong as standing army.
However, the rest of world appeared to ignore the fact that military parity collapsed. He thought it depended on the underestimation of Han race and felt necessary to let them know how he and Chinese are enlightened.
Jiang's stroke
In the beginning, he thought, the world should know that Chinese had capability to initiate war or at least sensational an incident to threaten Japanese.
He organized secret society called blue shirts to assassinate not only his political enemies but also anyone against him. Blue shirts were very active and killed many communists at the start. Then, approaching summer of 1936 he ordered to kill Japanese officials or anyone prominent living in China for the sake of provocation. If Japanese reacted and entered North China he would put the war plan into action all at once.
Terrorist attacks to Japanese citizens continued during August and September 1936 are as follows.
1. Two newspapermen shot to death attending the party hosted by consulate-general of Chengdu
2. A merchant shot to death in Beihai
3. A policeman guarding consulate-general of Hankou shot to death
4. A sailor of Japanese gun boat shot to death in Shanghai concession
It was apparent that all were blue shirts' doing because a way of crime was all the same and all were committed in the area controlled by Nationalists Party. Imperial Navy got upset and insisted upon bombardment on Nanjing. Ishihara, being top of Imperial Army had deaf ears to anything to offend Jiang.
He had a firm belief that Japan was obliged to build "Heavenly Earth Empire of Manchuria" where five races, Japanese, Koreans, Chinese (Han race), Tatars, Mongolians can live in harmony. His desire came from the fact that he was a real founder of Manchu-kok. He was eccentric enough in politics, but not insane in military matters. From this time on Seekt's tactics crossed in his mind.
He spent three years in Germany for inspection as one of the Allied officers shortly after her surrender in 1918. Germans were friendly enough to show him any military documents pertaining to Western front partly because they did not meet any Japanese there. While scrutinizing familiar languages and the style of documentation revelation suddenly struck him. He was convinced that next war must be fought in trench, and of attrition.
In his judgement Chinese are always procrastinated in war and accustomed to endure attrition. If Jiang decides to use his war-machine Chinese dig in trench and the warfare is lengthy enough for Japanese not to endure.
Ishihara's hope was not to involve any war in China proper.
Anti-Comintern pact
Going into October, Chiang's attitude dramatically changed. He apologized to the Japanese ambassador with politeness saying: "I was deeply sympathized with the victims and pledge my word to better security in China". These words impressed Japanese diplomats because it was believed that Chinese never recognized their own fault.
What happened in his brain?
Neurath(18), German secretary of state and Ribbentrop(19), German ambassador to Britain were quarreling with each other on the course of diplomacy. Ribbentrop insisted on free hand in the East of Europe to the extent that Germans' Lebens Raum (living space) expands to not only newly established little entente countries but USSR. In this sense Germany should contain USSR from the east. Oshima(20), military attache for Japanese embassy in Berlin had intimate relationship with Ribbentrop.
In summer of 1936 Oshima and Ribbentrop mutually agreed with the treaty containing USSR. Neurath was good at handling bureaucratic matters but had no strong will power. Like Seekt the career diplomat hoped to keep relationship with USSR good in order to cope with Britain and France. This course of diplomacy was against Hitler's will. Ribbentrop predominated over Neurath.
In Japan career diplomats except pan-Asianists were all opposed to the treaty with Germany who had no meaningful fleet and was of no use for the island country.
Hirota, then prime minister was different. He successfully managed bureaucracy and the Diet alike with account that this treaty (later, called anti-Comintern pact, concluded in November 1936) was simply instructive without anything hostile to the specific state and he intended to persuade US, Britain and France to engage this treaty or anti-communism.
US vehemently asked Japan for the explanation of the treaty that might divide the world into two parties. Hirota had deaf ears. When he contacted Britain to join the treaty Yoshida(21), ambassador to Britain protested: "That's joke. The British are busy in diplomacy and have no time in discussing spiritual matters."
However, his real aim was not anti-communism but to sever Germano-Chinese connection. Hirota snatched a momentary success, for Jiang, given a prior notice from Trautmann(22), German ambassador, felt betrayed with suspicion toward Germans and lost his nerve to attack Japanese by his intiative.
Xian Incident
Disappointed by conclusion of anti-Comintern pact Chiang visited Xian in December 1937, the ancient capital of China in order to talk with Zhang Xueliang, a notorious opium addict who was expelled from Manchuria and settled down there by Chiang's benevolence. Zhang was expected to be amiable, for he did not accompany any except a few aids though Zhang's army still numbered 200 thousand.
The agenda was to suppress Communists Party but both appeared reluctant to push it. On December 12 while talking about Chinese antique Zhang suddenly confined him by arms. He could not understand why Zhang antagonized him. However, Zhang's desire was to change boss to Communists Party or Mao with Jiang Jieshi killed as a sacrifice for the Communists uprising. Mao, already chairman of the party had secretly informed Stalin of the plan to kidnap and execute him, but of nothing about how.
Immediately after Stalin heard of Xian incident, he ordered Pravda, newspaper of party organ to criticize the unjust nature of Zhang's doing. Stalin still remembered that Zhang's army stormed USSR embassy in Harbin with his diplomats missing to nowhere in 1931.
Mao Zedong changed his mind by reading Pravda and resignedly decided to dispatch Zhou Enlai to intermediate between Jiang and Zhang.
Zhang felt betrayed by everyone and said to Jiang; "How wonderful your words and calligraphy are. I studied through and through to understanding how I myself was wrong." The aircraft carrying these two passengers landed on Nanjing airfield awaiting hundreds of politicians and newspapermen alike on December 18. To the astonishment of these celebrities Jiang became an instant hero of a kind from this time on. Chinese wanted a strong leader after almost 40 years disorder.
Loaded pause
Going into 1937, Japan was in tranquil severed from the rest of the world. However, in the Diet crisis Hirota's cabinet fell down since he was unable to respond to the question from the opposition party: "Do you cut your belly (hara-kiri) if there is no insultation against Imperial Army in my speech?"
These days in the public opinion pacifism was prevalent. Therefore, the opposition party asked the government to take reconciliation policy toward China and isolation policy toward Europe. Sincere love of peace is no excuse for muddling millions of people into war and for giving foreign leaders misunderstanding that Japan was no ability to sustain total war.
Sato (23), taking the office of minister of foreign affairs was also a pacifist. He belonged to the Westerners group in the ministry and had worked in the League of Nations for long. He was a sincere believer in the League and its collective security though Japan had already left it.
In March 1937 he delivered a remarkable speech in the Diet: "As far as Europe concerns I am doubtful whether there is a crisis to bring it into total war, though I may be an optimist. I think it unnecessary to change our overall policy toward China and necessary to calm our nation down with enough patience. The real war or the real crisis depends on our way of thinking. If we don't want war we can avoid it. I am convinced if we don't initiate war there is no war."
The Second World War really happened two years and half later in Europe and China showed their ability 5 months later to initiate war with Japan. This is one of the least clairvoyant speeches that the responsibility persons for diplomacy have ever uttered.
Marco Polo bridge incident
Jiang Jieshi found the fortification around Shanghai completed. An immense line with tree lines of trench and pillboxes was combined with lakes and large canals. It seemed that even a line of ants couldn't pass over it.
Falkenhausen nailed down the original war plan by Seekt. The plan became elaborated including mobilization, concentration and deployment. He also succeeded to persuade Jiang to regard anti-Comintern pact as a kind of faint with nothing substantial. And so, there seemed no hindrance to initiate the war with Japan.
In May 1937 Jiang invited all military factions and political parties including Communists Party to Lushan that is a summer resort, one thousand meters high. The real aim of this convention was to enforce his order and to announce the start of war.
However, Song, commander of 29th army refused to participate probably because he realized what Jiang wanted. He declared to go to his birthplace for filial piety. Song's behavior alerted Dohihara. He persuaded Song to stand by Japan also to vain.
While Lushan convention continued Marco Polo bridge incident suddenly occurred. By Peking protocol to condition the settlement of Boxers rebellion in 1900 great powers and Japan obtained the right to garrison Tienjin (in Japanese "Tenshin") and Beiping (then and now "Beijing" and in Cantonese "Peking"). Japanese soldiers of Tenshin-army were shot during the exercise spending live cartridges near Marco Polo bridge. They suspected Chinese soldiers of 29th army staying in the walled city that was the entrance of Marco Polo bridge were responsible for the shooting. There continued the gunfight until that morning. But, after the sunrise both parties were eager to settle down as early as possible.
A tentative agreement to separate both soldiers was arranged twelve hours later. Song also returned to Beiping and pledged to follow the guidance from commander of Tenshin-army.
It seemed that nothing important happened. However, Jiang found a chance to initiate the war with Japan. If the central army attacked Japanese marines in Shanghai and the fight around Beiping continued Japanese must face two-front war. He ordered the partial mobilization of the central army on July 10 and pushed Song to continue the fight with Japanese Tenshin-army.
Son was reluctant because he knew his army could not match with reinforced Japanese Tenshin-army. Information of the mobilization of the central army flew into Japan. General Staff in Tokyo was puzzled on which course the central army would take, Beipin or Shanghai and threat or action. At the last moment it was decided that half of a division would be transferred to Tienjin on July 11.
Jian got angry, for Song assumed a negative attitude and accepted the negotiation with Japanese, especially with Dohihara. Both Jiang and Dohihara competitively tried to pull Song's sleeve.
Hitler-Germany also set a trap. Hirota said in the cabinet meeting on July 12: "According to German ambassador here Jiang has no intention to fight. The case is closed."
The pause continued until July 20. On that day, Jiang was convinced in victory and ordered the central army to concentrate in the demilitarized zone next to Shanghai and upon his directive to attack Japanese Shanghai marines.
Falkenhausen appreciated this situation and telegraphed to Blomberg, German secretary of war: "Jiang Jieshi decided on an aggression of war. This is not partial war but total. Japan from fear of Russian intervention cannot throw all divisions into China. Therefore, Chinese has no difficulty on the coming battle. Chinese infantry is excellent and air force as well. Their morale is high." Germans' hope was to rule prosperous Shanghai concession jointly with Jiang.
Jiang sent his aid-decamp to persuade Song to attack Japanese fiercely. Song finally said, "Yes," but did not know how to fight. He started some shootings from July 20 on probably for appearance's sake. He almost lost his temper and conspired with Dohihara not to do "real fight." However, blue shirts and communists already permeated 29th army. Under their guidance the militia reportedly friendly with Japan in Tongzhou (10 miles east of Beiping) suddenly revolted and massacred more than two hundred civilians of Japanese nationality.
Timidity and bravery
The background of this massacre in Tongzhow was immediately learned in Japan and newspapers cried out to punish Chinese and to send punitive troops into China. Ishihara had no choice but to mobilize three divisions and no more. On the other hand, Dohihara negotiated with Song to the agreement that 29th army withdrew to the southern area 40 miles away from Beiping and Japanese Tenshin-army planes bombed 29th army barracks for appearance's sake.
Ishihara was in the dark mood, for his long nurtured dream that the joint army between Japan and China to conquer Europe or North America vanished. As chief of operation department of General Staff he was responsible for planning of war. In his duties he was pessimistic because of his belief that Japanese manpower was not enough to endure war of attrition. He did nothing except to urge diplomats to negotiate with Jiang who decided not to meet any Japanese government officials since last October.
As a result, there was no military command in Japan except Emperor Showa. He is commander in chief of Imperial Army as in the constitution. However, there was no written authority to define his title.
The emperor called Ishihara up to clarify why this massacre occurred and what happens next followed by the mobilization of Chinese central army. Ishihara said, "Chinese are not able to initiate war so that Jiang ordered mobilization for vanity's sake. Imperial Army should not send troops to the direction of Shanghai because USSR might intervene. The only way to do is to withdraw all Japanese civilians and to leave assets in China. Assets there are cheaper than war."
Emperor Showa was aghast to hear that.
To him this comment did not make any sense because mobilization after a few steps could not be canceled and when withdrawing Japanese residents it was inevitable to lose lives of Japanese in the process. Moreover, after the withdrawal, itself shameful enough, Chinese surely confiscate all foreign assets in Shanghai. Japanese reputation falls down to the extent that anyone regards Japan as unreliable.
He asked some old generals and admirals to change the course of the army's operation and to envisage the possibility to reinforce Shanghai marines even if amphibious operation might be necessary.
The mobilization in mid-China was going on and the central army appeared to concentrate into Nanjing-Shanghai area (in Chinese,"Songhu")
The battle of Shanghai
According to Falkenhausen's plan the spearhead of the central army, 88th division and 87th concentrated at Shanghai North station on August 10 onward. On August 12 Chinese air force bombed Shanghai concession without warning killing two thousand out of which 250 were US and Western countries' nationals in consequence. The most notorious case was the death of Reishauer(24), orientalist and brother of the future US ambassador to Japan.
Jiang Jieshi ordered the central army to attack in total the headquarters of Japanese Marines located in the northern part of Shaghai concession on August 13.
This was a complete surprise to Japanese. Japanese diplomats were still in Nanjing and some of them remained there until the end of August to stop Chinese onslaught by negotiation during the pitched battle. They imagined rebellious officers misled the attack.
In Tokyo, Ishihara still persisted to flee away from China.
However, the outright attack against Shanghai marines by Chinese central army was imparted to Emperor Showa through the Navy. He gave up Ishiwara and questioned to Sugiyama(25), minister of army: "Why can't you save friendly troops? This time they are also my subjects. When the battle field turns to Shanghai, heartland of China you cannot evade war."
On the same day all ministers except Sugiyama and Hirota in the cabinet meeting demanded the counter-attack against Jiang's unprovoked aggression.
Tada(26) was appointed as new quartermaster general of General Staff and Ishihara himself was demoted a month later and never took any prominent post thereafter. Tada declared to take " human bullet" tactics.
He mobilized 9 divisions to reinforce in Nanjing- Shanghai area. However it took a month and half to finish. Matsui(27), general on the retired list was pull out and appointed as commander of Shanghai Expeditionary Force.
On the other hand, Jiang already concentrated 750 thousand there. Even if Japanese finished to deploy 9 divisions Chinese had still advantage on the parity, 75 to 28.
But, there is one flaw in Falkenhausen's war plan. Shortly after the first attack to Japanese marines they are to keep defensive so that Japanese acquire the initiative of location and timing. 88th division in charge of the spearhead did not intend to occupy the headquarters of Japanese marines, rather to pull the main body of Japanese expeditionary force in toward Seekt line. A month later the first Japanese troops landing at Wusong pier turned the headquarters of marines to easterly direction. Then, Chinese 88th division withdrew to take part of Seekt line.
The fate of both sides hung on the balance for another month.
On October 10 Matsui ordered Shanghai Expeditionary Force with 4 divisions to break through at many a point. All of a sudden storm troopers poured into Chinese defense posts. A day or two was enough to cut Seekt line into pieces. Chinese resistance in the fortress of Dachangzhen was in vain. On October 26 Dachanzhen fell and the battle turned from trench war to mop-up. Chinese soldiers were in rout.
All Japanese infantry were trained infiltration tactics or Hutier tactics. It was unknown why Seekt did not tell of this modern tactics to Chinese. Tada ordered amphibious operation to land 3 divisions at Hangzhou bay. They proceeded to westerly direction to turn the main body of Chinese central army.
Most of Chinese soldiers got uniform off and tried to return to their capital city, Nanjing. However, General Staff of Imperial Army expected this movement. When Chinese soldiers neared Nanjing they saw the city in siege and the enemy in their back. On December 12 Nanjing fell. Most of Nanjing citizens that numbered 180 thousand welcomed invaders in flattery mood without any substantial battle inside the walled city.
Before this catastrophic defeat Jiang offered armistice through Trautman, German Ambassador to China and his counterpart Hirota also suggested the conditions of armistice, which might be generous from Japanese viewpoint. Jiang accepted these conditions forced by colleagues who openly said: "Why shall and did we fight under these conditions?" Hirota received this successful intermediation and then changed his mind because the public was excited by the overwhelming victory over China. He raised the conditions to including indemnity though China was already in bankruptcy.
Jiang questioned: "What do these new conditions mean?" Hirota replied: "China was defeated. There is a manner for the vanquished to follow and you be never obedient."
Tada and Sugiyama protested in the cabinet and in the court to stop the war to no avail. Timidity of the Army not to counterattack in Shanghai clung to every cabinet member.
The war continued for another 8 years without serious battles until Japanese were completely defeated by US. It is easy to defeat Chinese on the battlefield but hard to rule China.
[Biographies]
(1) Sun Wen (1866~1925) Chinese revolutionist
Provisional President of Republic China.
(2) Jiang Jieshi (1887~1975) Chinese General
Commander of National Revolution Army.
(3) Mao Zedong (1893~1976) Chinese dictator
Chairman of People's Republic of China.
(4) Zhou Enlai (1898~1976) Chinese revolutionist
Premier of State Bureaucracy.
(5) Perry, Commodore Matthew Calbraith (1794~1858) US Commodore
Commander of US East Indies Fleet.
(6) Ishihara Kanji (1889~1949) Japanese General
Chief of Operation Department of General Staff and summoned in testimony by Tokyo Tribunal.
(7) Zhang Xueliang (1898~2002) Chinese War Lord
Confined by Jiang until 1989.
(8) Emperor Showa (1902~1989)
Hirohito as first name.
(9) Hidehara Kijuro (1872~1951) Japanese diplomat
Minister of foreign affairs and later prime minister.
(10) Dohihara Kenji (1883~1948) Japanese General
Executed by Tokyo Tribunal.
(11) Pu Yi (1906~1967) Last Emperor of Qing Dynasty
Emperor of Manchu-Kok and imprisoned by Mao for 14 years.
(12) Seekt, Hans von (1866~1936) German General
Chief of General Staff of Reichswehr.
(13) Saionji Kinmochi (1849~1940) Japanese statesman
Head of Seiyukai (Liberal Party's successor) and prime minister.
(14) Emperor Meiji, the Great (1852~1912)
Created modern Japan, Mutsuhito as first name.
(15) Hirota Koki (1878~1948) Japanese diplomat
Executed by Tokyo Tribunal.
(16) Song Zheyuan (1885~1940) Chinese War Lord
Commander of 29th army.
(17) Falkenhausen, Alexander Freiherr von (1878~1966) German General
Governor of Belgium and North France, involved the Stauffenberg case and imprisoned by Hitler for half a year.
(18) Neurath, Konstantin von (1873~1956) German diplomat
Secretary of State, Protector of Czechoslovakia and imprisoned by Nuremberg Tribunal for 8 years.
(19) Ribbentrop, Joachim von (1893~1946) German diplomat
Secretary of State and executed by Nuremberg Tribunal.
(20) Oshima Hiroshi (1886~1978) Japanese diplomat
Ambassador to Germany and imprisoned by Tokyo Tribunal for 10 years.
(21) Yoshida Shigeru (1878~1967) Japanese diplomat
Prime minister after the Second World War.
(22) Trautmann, Oskar Paul(1877~1950) German diplomat
Ambassador to China and summoned home by Ribbentrop in 1938.
(23) Sato Naotake (1882~1971) Japanese diplomat
Ambassador to USSR at the end of the Second World War and chairman of upper House after the Second World War.
(24) Reishauer, Edwin Oldfather (1910~1991) US Japanologist
Professor of Harvard University and ambassador to Japan.
(25) Sugiyama Hajime (1880~1945) Japanese General
Minister of army during the Second World War. Committed suicide.
(26) Tada Hayao (1882~1948) Japanese General
Prosecuted by Tokyo Tribunal and acquitted.
(27) Matui Iwane (1878~1948) Japanese General
Executed by Tokyo Tribunal
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